Spring-2023/CS-2233/Notes.org

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-*  Discrete Math Notes [2024-03-30 Sat 22:51] :journal:cs2233:college:discrete_math:
-
-** Laws of Propositional Logic
-:PROPERTIES:
-:ID: 539a691a-ce6d-4711-84ba-57e74ed42f27
-:END:
-*** Domination Laws
-
-- $p ∧ F ≡ F$
-- $p ∨ ≡ T$
-
-*** Double Negation Law
-
-- $¬¬p ≡ p$
-
-*** Complement Laws
-
-- $p ∧ ¬p ≡ F$
-- $¬T ≡ F$
-- $p ∨ ¬p ≡ T$
-- $¬F ≡ T$
-
-*** De Morgan's Laws
-
-- $¬(p ∨ q) ≡ ¬p ∧ ¬q$
-- $¬(p ∧ q) ≡ ¬p ∨ ¬q$
-
-*** Absorption Laws
-
-- $p ∨ (p ∧ q) ≡ p$
-- $p ∧ (p ∨ q) ≡ q$
-
-*** Idempotent Laws
-
-- $p ∨ p ≡ p$
-- $p ∧ p ≡ p$
-
-*** Associative Laws
-
-Modifying the location of grouping doesn't modify the output among like operators.
-
-- $(p ∨ q) ∨ r ≡ p ∨ (q ∨ r)$
-- $(p ∧ q) ∧ r ≡ p ∧ (q ∧ r)$
-
-*** Commutative Laws
-
-Modifying the location of variables doesn't modify the output around like operators.
-
-- $(p ∨ q) ≡ (q ∨ p)$
-- $(p ∧ q) ≡ (q ∧ p)$
-
-*** Distributive Laws
-
-- $p ∨ (q ∧ r) ≡ (p ∨ q) ∧ (p ∨ r)$
-- $p ∧ (q ∨ r) ≡ (p ∧ q) ∨ (p ∧ r)$
-
-*** Identity Laws
-
-- $p ∨ F ≡ p$
-- $p ∧ T ≡ T$
-
-*** Conditional Identities
-
-- $p → q ≡ ¬p ∨ q$
-- $p ↔ q ≡ (p → q) ∧ (q → p)$
-
-** Even and Odd Integers
-- An integer $x$ is /*even*/ if there is an integer $k$ such that $x = 2k$
-- An integer $x$ is /*odd*/ if there is an integer $k$ such that $x = 2k + 1$
-
-** Parity
-
-- The /*parity*/ of a number is whether the number is odd or even. If two numbers are both even
-  or both odd, then the two numbers have the /*same parity*/. If one number is odd and the other
-  is even is even, then the two numbers have /*opposite parity*/.
-
-** Rational Numbers
-- A number $r$ is /*rational*/ if there exist integers $x$ and $y$ such that $y ≠ 0$ and
-  $r = x/y$.
-
-** Divides
-
-- An integer $x$ /*divides*/ an integer $y$ if and only if $x ≠ 0$ and $y = kx$, for some
-  integer $k$. The fact that $x$ divides $y$ is denoted $x | y$. If $x$ does not divide $y$, then
-  the fact is denoted $x ∤ y$.
-
-** Prime and Composite Numbers
-- An integer $n$ is /*prime*/ if and only if $n > 1$, and the only positive integers that divide
-  $n$ are $1$ and $n$.
-- An integer $n$ is /*composite*/ if and only if $n > 1$, and there is an integer $m$ such that
-  $1 < m < n$ and $m$ divides $n$.
-
-** Consecutive Integers
-- Two integers are /*consecutive*/ if one of the numbers is equal to $1$ plus the other number.
-  Effectively $n = m + 1$.
-
-** Proof by Contrapositive
-- A /*proof by contrapositive*/ proves a conditional theorem of the form $p → c$ by showing that
-  the contrapositive $¬c → ¬p$ is true. In other words, $¬c$ is assumed to be true and $¬p$ is
-  proven as a result of $¬c$.
-
-** Sets
-
-*** Common Mathematical Sets
-
-| Set                | Symbol | Examples of Elements      |
-|--------------------|--------|---------------------------|
-| Natural Numbers    | ℕ      | 0,1,2,3,...               |
-| Integers           | ℤ      | ...,-2,-1,0,1,2,...       |
-| Rational Numbers   | ℚ      | 0, 1/2, 5.23,-5/3, 7      |
-| Irrational Numbers | ℙ      | π, √2, √5/3, -4/√6        |
-| Real Numbers       | ℝ      | 0, 1/2, 5.23, -5/3, π, √2 |
-
-*** Subset
-- If every element in $A$ is also an element of $B$, then $A$ is a /*subset*/ of $B$, denoted as $A ⊆ B$.
-- If there is an element of $A$ that is not an element of $B$, then $A$ is not a subset of $B$,
-  denoted as $A ⊈ B$.
-- If the universal set is $U$, then for every set $A$: $Ø ⊆ A ⊆ U$
-- If $A ⊆ B$ and there is an element of $B$ that is not an element of $A$ (i.e. $A ≠ B$), then
-  $A$ is a /*proper subset*/ of $B$, denoted as $A ⊂ B$.
-*** Power Set
-- The /*power set*/ of a set $A$, denoted $P(A)$, is the set of all subsets of $A$. For example
-  if $A = {1,2,3}$, then: $P(A) = {Ø,{1},{2},{3},{1,2},{1,3},{2,3},{1,2,3}}$
-**** Cardinality of a Power Set
-- Let $A$ be a finite set of cardinality $n$. Then the cardinality of the power set of $A$ is
-  $2^n$, or $|P(A)| = 2^n$
-
-*** Set Operations
-**** Set Intersection
-
-- Let $A$ and $B$ be sets. The $intersection$ of $A$ and $B$, denoted $A ∩ B$ and read "$A$
-  intersect $B$", is the set of all elements that are elements of both $A$ and $B$.
-
-**** Set Union
-
-- The /*union*/ of two sets, $A$ and $B$, denoted $A ∪ B$ and read "$A$ union $B$", is the set
-  of all elements that are elements of $A$ or $B$. The definition for union uses the inclusive
-  or, meaning that if an element is an element of both $A$ and $B$, then it also and element of
-  $A ∪ B$.
-**** Set Difference
-- The /*difference*/ between two sets $A$ and $B$, denoted $A - B$, is the set of elements that
-  are in $A$ but not in $B$.
-- The difference operation is not commutative since it is not necessarily the case that $A - B = B - A$.
-  Consider that $3 - 2 ≠ 2 - 3$, same applies for the set difference operator.
-
-**** Set Symmetric Difference
-- The /*symmetric difference*/ between two sets, $A$ and $B$, denoted $A ⊕ B$, is the set of
-  elements that are a member of exactly one of $A$ and $B$, but not both. An alternate
-  definition of the symmetric difference operation is: $A ⊕ B = (A - B) ∪ (B - A)$
-
-**** Set Complement
-- The /*complement*/ of a set $A$, denoted $ ̅A$, is the set of all elements in $U$ (the
-  universal set) that are not elements of $A$. An alternate definition of $ ̅A$ is
-  $U - A$.
-
-*** Summary of Set Operations
-| Operation            | Notation | Description                    |
-|----------------------|----------|--------------------------------|
-| Intersection         | $A ∩ B$  | ${x: x ∈ A and x ∈ B}$         |
-| Union                | $A ∪ B$  | ${x: x ∈ A and x ∈ B or both}$ |
-| Difference           | $A - B$  | ${x: x ∈ A and x ∉ B}$         |
-| Symmetric Difference | $A ⊕ B$  | ${x: x ∈ A - B or x ∈ B - A}$  |
-| Complement           | $ ̅A$     | ${x: x ∉ A}$                   |
-
-*** Set Identities
-- A /*set identity*/ is an equation involving sets that is true regardless of the contents of the
-  sets in the expression.
-- Set identities are similar to [[id:539a691a-ce6d-4711-84ba-57e74ed42f27][Laws of Propositional Logic]]
-- The sets $U$ and $Ø$ correspond to the constants true (T) and false (F):
-  - $A ∈ Ø ↔ F$
-  - $A ∈ U ↔ T$
-
-[[./assets/set-identities.png][Table of set identities]]
-
-*** Cartesian Products
-
-- An /*ordered pair*/ of items is written $(x,y)$
-- The first /*entry*/ of the ordered pair $(x,y)$ is $x$ and the second entry is $y$
-- The use of parentheses $()$ for an ordered pair indicates that the order of the entries is
-  significant, unlike sets which use curly braces ${}$
-- Two ordered pairs $(x,y)$ and $(u,w)$ are equal if and only if $x = u$ and $y = w$
-- For two sets, $A$ and $B$, the /*Cartesian product*/ of $A$ and $B$ denoted $A × B$, is the
-  set of all ordered pairs in which the first entry is in $A$ and the second entry is in $B$.
-  That is: $A × B = {(a,b): a ∈ A and b ∈ B}$
-- Since the order of the elements in a pair is significant, $A × B$ will not be the same as
-  $B × A$, unless $A = B$, or either $A$ or $B$ is empty. If $A$ and $B$ are finite sets then
-  $|A × B| = |A| × |B|$
-
-*** Strings
-
-- A sequence of characters is called a /*string*/
-- The set of characters used in a set of strings is called the /*alphabet*/ for the set of
-  strings
-- The /*length*/ of a string is the number of characters in the string
-- A /*binary string*/ is a string whose alphabet is {0,1}
-  - A /*bit*/ is a character in a binary string
-  - A binary string of length $n$ is also called an /*$n$-bit string*/
-  - The set of binary strings of length $n$ is denoted as ${0,1}^n$
-- The /*empty string*/ is the unique string whose length is 0 and is usually denoted by the
-  symbol $λ$. Since ${0,1}^0$ is the set of all binary strings of length 0, ${0,1}^0 = {λ}$
-- If $s$ and $t$ are two strings, then the /*concatenation*/ of $s$ and $t$ (denoted $st$) is
-  the string obtained by putting $s$ and $t$ together
-  - Concatenating any string $x$ with the empty string ($λ$) gives back: $x: xλ = x$
-
-** Functions
-
-_Definition of a function:_
-#+begin_src typst
-A function $f$ that maps elements of a set $X$ to elements of a set $Y$, is a subset of $X × Y$
-such that for every $x ∈ X$, there is exactly one $y ∈ Y$ for which $(x,y) ∈ f$.
-
-$f: X → Y$ is the notation to express the fact that $f$ is a function from $X$ to $Y$. The set
-$X$ is called the _*domain*_ of $f$, and the set $Y$ is the _*target*_ of $f$. An alternate word
-for target that is sometimes used is _*co-domain*_. The fact that $f$ maps $x$ to $y$
-(or $(x,y) ∈ f$) can also be denoted as $f(x) = y$
-#+end_src
-
-- If $f$ maps an element of the domain to zero elements or more than one element of the target,
-  then $f$ is not /*well-defined*/.
-- If $f$ is a function mapping $X$ to $Y$ and $X$ is a finite set, then the function $f$ can be
-  specified by listing the pairs $(x,y)$ in $f$. Alternatively, a function with a finite domain
-  can be expressed graphically as an arrow diagram.
-- In an /*arrow diagram*/ for a function $f$, the elements of the domain $X$ are listed on the
-  left and the elements of the target $Y$ are listed on the right. There is an arrow diagram from
-  $x ∈ X$ to $y ∈ Y$ if and only if $(x,y) ∈ f$. Since $f$ is a function, each $x ∈ X$ has
-  exactly one $y ∈ Y$ such that $(x,y) ∈ f$, which means that in the arrow diagram for a
-  function, there is exactly one arrow pointing out of every element in the domain.
-  - See the following example arrow diagram: [[./assets/arrow-diagram.png]]
-- For function $f: X → Y$, an element $y$ is in the /*range*/ of $f$ if and only if there is an
-  $x ∈ X$ such that $(x,y) ∈ f$.
-  - Expressed in set notation: Range of $f = {y: (x,y) ∈ f, for some x ∈ X}$
-*** Function Equality
-
-- Two functions, $f$ and $g$, are /*equal*/ if $f$ and $g$ have the same domain and target, and
-  $f(x) = g(x)$ for every element $x$ in the domain. The notation $f = g$ is used to denote the
-  fact that functions $f$ and $g$ are equal.
-
-*** The Floor Function
-
-- The /*floor function*/ maps a real number to the nearest integer in the downwards direction
-- The floor function is denoted as: $floor(x) = ⌊x⌋$
-
-*** The Ceiling Function
-- The /*ceiling function*/ rounds a real number to the nearest integer in the upwards direction
-- The ceiling function is denoted as: $ceiling(x) = ⌈x⌉$
-
-*** Properties of Functions
-- A function $f: X → Y$ is /*one-to-one*/ or /*injective*/ if $x_1 ≠ x_2$ implies that
-  $f(x_1) ≠ f(x_2)$. That is, $f$ maps different elements in $X$ to different elements in $Y$.
-- A function $f: X → Y$ is /*onto*/ or /*surjective*/ if the range of $f$ is equal to the target
-  $Y$. That is, for every $y ∈ Y$, there is an $x ∈ X$ such that $f(x) = y$.
-- A function is /*bijective*/ if it is both one-to-one and onto. A bijective function is called a
-  /*bijection*/. A bijection is also called a /*one-to-one correspondence*/.
-
-*** Composition of Functions
-- The process of applying a function to the result of another function is called
-  /*composition*/.
-- Definition of /*function composition*/
-  #+begin_src typst
-  $f$ and $g$ are two function, where $f: X → Y$ and $g: Y → Z$. The composition of $g$ with
-  $f$, denoted $g ○ f$, is the function ($g ○ f): X → Z$, such that for all
-  $x ∈ X, (g ○ f)(x) = g(f(x))$
-  #+end_src
-- Composition is /associative/
-- The /*identity function*/ always maps a set onto itself and maps every element onto itself.
-  - The identity function on $A$, denoted $I_A: A → A$, is defined as $I_A(a) = a$, for all
-    $a ∈ A$
-  - If a function $f$ from $A$ to $B$ has an inverse, then $f$ composed with its inverse is the
-    indentity function. If $f(a) = b$, then $f^-1(b) = a$, and
-    $(f^-1 ○ f)(a) = f^-1(f(a)) = f^-1(b) = a$.
-    - Let $f: A → B$ be a bijection. Then $f^-1 ○ f = I_A$ and $f ○ f^-1 = I_B$
-** Computation
-
-*** Introduction to Algorithms
-
-- An /*algorithm*/ is a step-by-step method for solving a problem. A description of an algorithm
-  specifies the input to the problem, the output to the problem, and the sequence of steps to be
-  followed to obtain the output from the input.
-- A description of an algorithm usually includes
-  - A name for the algorithm
-  - A brief description of the task performed by the algorithm
-  - A description of the input
-  - A description of the output
-  - A sequence of steps to follow
-- Algorithms are often described in /*pseudocode*/, which is a language between written English
-  and a computer language
-- An important type of step in an algorithm is an /*assignment*/, in which a variable is given a
-  variable. The assignment operated is denoted by $:=$, for example to assign $x$ to $y$ you
-  would write it as: $x := y$.
-- The output of an algorithm is specified by a /*return*/ statement.
-  - For example, the statement $Return(x)$ would return the value of $x$ as the output of the
-    algorithm.
-  - A return statement in the middle of an algorithm causes the execution of the algorithm to
-    stop at that point and return the indicated value
-**** The if-statement and the if-else-statement
-- An /*if-statement*/ tests a condition, and executes one or more instructions if the condition
-  evaluates to true. In a single line if-statement, a conditon and instruction appear on the
-  same line.
-- An /*if-else-statement*/ tests a condition, executes one or more instructions if the condition
-  evaluates to true, and executes a different set of instructions in the condition evaluates to
-  false.
-
-**** The for-loop
-- In a /*for-loop*/, a block of instructions is executed a fixed number of times as specified in
-  the first line of the for-loop, which defines an /*index*/, a starting value for the index,
-  and a final value for the index.
-- Each repetition of the block of instructions inside the for-loop is called an
-  /*iteration*/.
-- The index is initially assigned a value equal to the starting value, and is incremented just
-  before the next iteration begins.
-- The final iteration of the for-loop happens when the index reaches the final value.
-
-**** The while-loop
-- A /*while-loop*/ iterates an unknown number of times, ending when a certain condition becomes
-  false.
-*** Asymptotic Growth of Functions
-
-- The /*asymptotic growth*/ of the function $f$ is a measure of how fast the output $f(n)$ grows
-  as the input $n$ grows.
-- Classification of functions using Oh, $Ω$, and $Θ$ notation (called /*asymptotic notation*/)
-  provides a way to concisely characterize the asymptotic growth of a function.
-
-**** O-notation
-- The notation $f = O(g)$ is read "$f$ is /*Oh of*/ $g$". $f = O(g)$ essentially means that the
-  function $f(n)$ is less than or equal to $g(n)$, if constant factors are omitted and small
-  values for $n$ are ignored.
-- The $O$ notation serves as a rough upper bound for functions (disregarding constants and
-  small input values)
-- In the expressions $7n^3$ and $5n^2$, the $7$ and the $5$ are called /*constant factors*/
-  because the values of $7$ and $5$ do not depend on the variable $n$.
-- If $f$ is $O(g)$, then there is a positive number $c$ such that when $f(n)$ and $c × g(n)$ are
-  graphed, the graph of $c × g(n)$ will eventually cross $f(n)$ and remain higher than $f(n)$
-  as $n$ gets large.
-- Definition: /Oh notation/
-  #+begin_src typst
-  Let $f$ and $g$ be functions from $ℤ^+$ to $ℝ^>=$. Then $f = O(g)$ if there are positive real
-  numbers $c$ and $n_0$ such that for any $n ∈ ℤ^+$ such that $n >= n_0$: $f(n) <= c × g(n)$.
-  #+end_src
-- The constants $c$ and $n_0$ in the definition of Oh-notation are said to be a /*witness*/ to
-  the fact that $f = O(g)$.
-
-**** Ω Notation
-- The $Ω$ notation provides a lower bound on the growth of a function
-- $Ω$ notation definition:
-  #+begin_src typst
-  Let $f$ and $g$ be functions from $ℤ^+$ to $ℝ^>=$. Then $f = Ω(g)$ if there are positive real
-  numbers $c$ and $n_0$ such that for any $n ∈ ℤ^+$ such that for $n >= n_0$,
-
-      $f(n) >= c × g(n)$
-
-  The notation $f = Ω(g)$ is read "$f$ is _*Omega*_ of $g$".
-  #+end_src
-
-- Relationship between Oh-notation and $Ω$-notation:
-  #+begin_src typst
-  Let $f$ and $g$ be functions from $ℤ^+$ to $ℝ^>=$. Then $f = Ω(g)$ if and only if $g = O(f)$
-  #+end_src
-
-**** 𝛩 notation and polynomials
-- The $𝛩$ notation indicates that two functions have the same rate of growth
-- $𝛩$-notation definition:
-  #+begin_src typst
-  Let $f$ and $g$ be functions from $ℤ^+$ to $ℝ^>=$.
-
-  $f = 𝛩(g)$ if $f = O(g)$ and $f = Ω(g)$
-
-  The notation $f = 𝛩(g)$ is read "$f$ is *_Theta of_* $g(n)$"
-  #+end_src
-- If $f = 𝛩(g)$, then $f$ is said to be /*order of*/ $g$.
-- /*Lower order*/ terms are those that can be removed from $f$ that does not change the /order/
-  of $f$.
-
-**** Asymptotic growth of polynomials
-#+begin_src typst
-Let $p(n)$ be a degree-$k$ polynomial of the form:
-
-$p(n) = a_kn^k + ... + a_1n + a_0$
-
-in which $a_k > 0$. Then $p(n)$ is $𝛩(n^k)$
-#+end_src
-
-**** Asymptotic growth of logarithm functions with different bases
-
-Let $a$ and $b$ be two real numbers greater than $1$, then $log_a(n) = 𝛩(log_b(n))$
-
-**** Growth rate of common functions in analysis of algorithms
-
-- A function that does not depend on $n$ at all is called a /*constant function*/. $f(n) = 17$
-  is an example of a constant function.
-- Any constant function is $𝛩(1)$.
-- If a function $f(n)$ is $𝛩(n)$, we say that $f(n)$ is a =linear= function.
-- A function $f(n)$ is said to be /*polynomial*/ if $f(n)$ is $𝛩(n^k)$ for some positive real
-  number $k$.
-
-**** Common functions in algorithmic complexity.
-
-The following table of functions are given in increasing order of complexity, with the $m$
-in the third from the bottom being any $m > 3$:
-[[./assets/common-funcs-algo-complexity.png][Table here]]
-
-**** Rules about asymptotic growth
-
-[[./assets/rules-asymptotic-growth-of-functions.png][See here]]
-
-*** Analysis of algorithms
-
-- The amount of resources used by an algorithm is referred to as the algorithm's
-  /*computational complexity*/.
-- The primary resources to optimize are the time the algorithm requires to run
-  (/*time complexity*/) and the amount of memory used (/*space complexity*/).
-- The /*time complexity*/ of an algorithm is defined by a function $f: ℤ^+ → ℤ^+$ such that $f(n)$
-  is the maximum number of atomic operations performed by the algorithm on any input of
-  size $n$. $ℤ^+$ is the set of positive integers.
-- The /*asymptotic time complexity*/ of an algorithm is the rate of asymptotic growth of the
-  algorithm's time complexity function $f(n)$.
-
-**** Worst-case complexity
-- The /*worst-case analysis*/ of an algorithm evaluates the time complexity of the algorithm on
-  the input of a particular size that takes the longest time.
-- The /*worst-case*/ time complexity function $f(n)$ is defined to be the maximum number of
-  atomic operations the algorithm requires, where the maximum is taken over all inputs of size
-  $n$.
-- When proving an /*upper bound*/ on the worst-case complexity of an algorithm (using
-  $O$-notation), the upper bound must apply for every input of size $n$.
-- When proving a /*lower bound*/ for the worst-case complexity of an algorithm (using
-  $Ω$-notation), the lower bound need only apply for at least one possible input of size $n$.
-- /*Average-case analysis*/ evaluates the time complexity of an algorithm by determining the
-  average running time of the algorithm on a random input.